Advances in Applied Geospatial Research
On
multiple fronts – academic, professional, and government – geographic
information science and technology (GIS&T) is buzzing with glowing
accolades (Nature Publishing Group, 2004; U.S. DOLETA,
2009; U.S. DOL, GITA & AAG, n.d.). Catching this wave
of enthusiasm vibrating through the geospatial industries, IGI Global presents Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic
Decision Making: Issues and Trends (Albert, 2010a;
Albert,
2010b; Albert & Strait, 2010). This
volume is designed as a resource for private and public sector applied
geographers engaged as geospatial technicians, analysts, scientists, and
managers. It includes chapters that highlight the use of geospatial
technologies to explore applied geographic issues and problems; studies from
economic geography, urban geography, population geography, medical geography,
political geography, geography of education, geography of crime, and
transportation geography are considered. Geospatial
Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trend is
a compilation designed to provide planners and policy analysts, practitioners,
academicians (students, faculty, administrators) and others using GIS&T
information to support education, training, and career initiatives (Section 1)
and to offer studies that employ geospatial technologies (geospatial
statistics, global positioning systems, geographic information systems, remote
sensing, etc.) to answer practical, utilitarian, and applied geographic
questions in human geography (IJAGR, 2009). Before describing the organization
and content of this volume a brief section follows that defines “applied
geography” and “GIS&T” and concludes with a synopsis of their evolution and
intersection.
Applied Geography and GIS&T
Applied
geography is “a type of research that uses geographic principles to solve
problems” (Wilson & Smith, 2008, p. 2). It
involves “the application of geographic
knowledge and skills to the resolution of social, economic and environmental
problems” (Pacione, 1999, p. 3, italics in
original). This definition emphasizes the geographer’s toolbox (skills), but
not to the exclusion of knowledge (principles), and recognizes the range of
problems (social, economic, and environmental) suitable for investigation.
Gibson’s proclamation that “the more that it is tied to problem solving the
better” (Gibson, 2007, p. 35) further emphasizes the
problem-solving aspect of applied geography. The “plethora of problem
situations which confront modern societies” guarantees applied geographers no
shortage of potential contributions (Pacione, 2004,
p. 23). The expectation, of course, is that applied geographic research “solve
problems that inform decision-making and policy” (Torrieri & Ratcliffe, 2003,
p. 541) and ultimately improves the human-environment condition. Some use the
terms GIS&T and geospatial interchangeably to describe the field or
industry that “acquires, integrates, manages, analyzing, maps, distributes, and
uses geographic information and knowledge” (U.S. DOL, GITA & AAG, n.d.).
Drawing from the disciplines of geography and information science &
technology, GIS&T encompasses three interacting sub-domains: geographic
information science (GIScience), geospatial technology, and applications of
geographic information science and technology. One sub-domain, GIScience,
involves understanding the “nature of geographic information and the
application of geospatial technologies to basic scientific questions” (DiBiase et
al., 2006, p. 5). With exceptions, two-way asymmetrical
relations exist between GIScience and such cognate realms as philosophy,
psychology, mathematics (symmetrical), statistics, and computer science.
Another sub-domain, geospatial technology, supports the acquisition, storage,
manipulation, analysis, and display of georeferenced data using geographic
information systems (GIS), remote sensing, surveying and global positioning
systems (GPS), mapping and cartography, 3-D imaging and other visualization
tools. The remaining sub-domain, applications of GIScience and technology,
demonstrates the “diverse uses of geospatial technology in government,
industry, and academia” (DiBiase et al., 2006, p. 6). It is this
third sub-domain, applications of GIS&T, that is illustrated within the
pages of Geospatial Technologies and
Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends.
Applied geography is an approach rather than
a specialty because it “rejects artificial academic boundaries and highlights
linkages between different geographical phenomena” (Pacione, 2004,
p. 23). Nevertheless, applied geography is often treated as a specialty for the
convenience of forming a group of individuals with shared interests from a
larger organization. For example, the Applied Geography Specialty Group is one
of over 60 specialty and affinity groups recognized by the Association of
American Geographers. Applied geography, however, is not a specialty in the
strict sense because it possesses neither an exclusive body of knowledge or
“set of techniques, concepts, methodologies, and theories” (Torrieri
& Ratcliffe, 2003, p. 541). Applied geography as an
approach fosters connections between applied and pure sciences, academic and
non-academic (professional) domains, client-driven and curiosity-driven
research, human and physical geographic specialties, and the emerging
entrepreneurial university (Gibson, 2007; Pacione, 2004).
Applied geography has grown through a
synergetic union with GIS&T. Torrieri and Ratcliffe (2003)
acknowledged that “the growth of applied geography has been fueled by the
development and exchange of geographic tools and resources” (p. 545). Recently
the Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration listed
“geospatial” as one of fourteen high growth industries (U.S. DOLETA, 2009).
This was forecasted earlier in the widely disseminated piece titled Mapping Opportunities with the statement
that “[T]he demand for geospatial skills is growing worldwide” (Nature Publishing Group, 2004, p.
376).
Over the last decade use of GIS&T has
become a modus operandi within
applied geographic research circles. Montz and Tobin (2007)
categorized articles appearing in the Papers
of the Applied Geography Conferences by primary and secondary themes for
three time periods within 1979-2006. The theme “GIS” started off at 5% during
1978-1987, jumped to 17% during 1988 to 1997, and dropped to 12% during
1998-2006 (Box 1). Rather than indicating a
decline in these technologies however, Montz and Tobin (2007,
p. 7) explained that
By the third time period, GIS tools are well
embedded in geographic research, and are now beginning to include a broader
array of approaches known as geographic information science (GISci). While the
technology is probably used in a larger proportion of the papers than indicated
by the 12 percent, it does not show up as a primary or secondary theme to the
research.
Their assessment suggests that GIS&T no
longer holds the novelty status among applied geographers it did in the late
1970s.
Box 1. Focus on geographic information
systems
There have been numerous attempts to define geographic information systems (GIS) since its emergence in the 1960s, but no universal definition exists (DiBiase et al., 2006; Maguire, 1991; Taylor, 1991). No wonder. Describing GIS is akin to the story about six blind men who variously described an elephant as a wall, spear, snake, tree, fan, and rope. Nevertheless, paring aspects from existing definitions one might envision GIS as the integration of hardware, software, and personnel to capture, store, manipulate, analyze and display geographically referenced data for problem solving and decision support (Aronoff, 1989; Cowen, 1988; ICMA, 1991). These essential elements of GIS are illuminated throughout Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends.
|
Organization
This
volume includes nineteen chapters authored and co-authored by thirty-seven
authors and co-authors. The authors were drawn from both academic and
professional circles and represent twenty-two entities (universities,
institutes, and other organizations) from the United States, Canada, and Kenya.
The contributors are well credentialed with titles such as distinguished
professor, executive director, endowed chair, and award recipient attached to
their positions. Most of the authors are nationally recognized in the field of applied geography and are proven leaders in this field. I encourage the readers to examine their biosketches (see About the Contributors beginning on page 319).
Section 1 is titled “Philosophy, Education, Training, and Prospects in Applied Geospatial
Industries” and it includes eight chapters. The keywords amalgamated from
the chapters in Section 1 illustrate the range of topics covered: geospatial
technologies (GIS, GPS, remote sensing), education and training, and career
paths and opportunities (Table 1). For geography departments
and other academic units, institutes, and organizations proposing or offering
education and training in geospatial technologies these chapters provide
justification for development and expansion of geospatial personnel, programs
and facilities (Box 2).
Box 2. Advice to undergraduate and graduate
students pursuing geospatial certificates and degrees
I have been teaching geography at Sam Houston State University for more than a decade. It is still amazing to me that so many students, and for that matter faculty, don’t have a clue about geospatial technologies. I have come to expect geographic illiteracy among college students, colleagues from other departments, and a large proportion of the general public. The concept of geographic illiteracy is easy to illustrate with ready examples posted to You Tube (i.e., geographic flubs by Miss South Carolina, Kellie Pickler on Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?, and Jay Leno’s Jaywalking segments come to mind). If this is done without too much seriousness it amuses the students while hitting the notion of geographic illiteracy out-of-the-park. Another ramification of geographic illiteracy is the failure of students to recognize that geospatial technologies can enhance their major or career options. I often have to make a strong pitch to students majoring in marketing, general business, biology, environmental science, criminal justice, construction management and so forth that enrolling in geospatial courses or declaring minors in geography or GIS would enhance their skill set and improve their employment prospects. This usually involves chats after class, tours of our geospatial lab facilities, introductions to select faculty, copies of our latest departmental newsletter, and so forth. Even then some students still don’t get it and perhaps are best to wander elsewhere (I suppose they could have a revelation later). For those students convinced of the value of a geospatial education, and perhaps are already majors, minors, or pursuing a certificate, the challenge is to help them select a complementary major or minor. Why? Because one should posses a knowledge base on some subject whether it is political science, health care delivery, banking, criminal justice, or whatever as a prerequisite for geospatial analysis. It is difficult to conduct valid geospatial analysis without a thorough understanding of the phenomena under investigation. Therefore, I encourage students interested in geospatial technology to either choose a major in geography with a minor in another subject or vice versa choose a major in something other than geography but minor in geography or GIS. My philosophy is not to “convert” all to majors and minors to geography, but to help them contemplate their degree program and career opportunities.
|
Section 2 is titled “Focus on Human Geography
Specialties in Applied Geospatial Research” and it includes eleven chapters.
Again, examination of keywords provides insight into content and coverage (Table 2); for example, the materials
herein revolve around applied human geographies including: economic, urban,
population, medical, crime, and transportation geographies. Numerous geospatial
techniques permeate these studies including least cost path, dasymetric
mapping, areal interpolation, and retail gravitation to name just some.
Together Sections 1 and 2 offer a balance of content of interest to both the
academic and practitioner, and those in between.
Table 1. Keywords from “Geospatial
Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making"
Section 1
Philosophy, Education, Training, and Prospects in Applied Geospatial
Industries
|
Section 2
Focus on Human Geography Specialties in Applied Geospatial Research
|
Access to Care
Applied Geography
Career Ladders
Careers
Computer Laboratory
Content Analysis
Critical Incident Management
Curricular Analysis
Decision Making
Departmental Resources
(Geography)
Disaster Management
Educational Trends
Evaluation
Geographic Skills
Geographic Information
Science
Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)
Geographic Knowledge
Geomatics
Geospatial Definition
Geospatial Technology
Geospatial Workforce
GIS Education
Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Gynecologic Oncologist
Immersive Training
Incident Command
Job Titles
Jobs
Kaplan-Meier Survival
Kentucky
Learning Community
Ovarian Cancer
Public Policy
Remote Sensing
Research Design
Sense of Place
Simulation Training
U.S. Department of Labor
Workforce Imbalance
|
3-C Corridor
Academic Quality
Areal Interpolation
Banking
Blacks
Branching
Brand Preferences
Burger King
Burglary
Business Geography
Competition
Concentration
Congressional Districts
Contingencies
Crime
Dasymetric
Deregulation
Disaster Response and
Management
Disasters
E-Index
Fast Food
Geographic Health Disparities
Geographic Information
Systems
Health Expenditures
HHI
High-Speed Rail
Illinois
Interpolation
Land Use/Land Cover Change
Landscape Analysis
Least Coast Path
Location Factors
Low Income Housing
Markets
McDonald’s
Mismatch
Mortality Rates
Ohio Hub Project
Population Estimation
Public Assistance
Public-Private School Choice
Race Retail Location
Racial Preferences
Rail Routing
Rapid Urban Growth
Remote Sensing
Residential Mobility
Retail Gravitation
Section 8 Housing
Spatial Clustering
Spatial Population Estimation
Trade Areas
Whites
|
SECTION 1: PHILOSOPHY, EDUCATION, TRAINING,
AND PROSPECTS IN APPLIED GEOSPATIAL INDUSTRIES
Section
1 of Geospatial Technologies and
Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends provides fresh
perspectives on education, training, and employment opportunities useful to
individuals, departments, institutes of higher education, and industries
embracing GIS&T. Chapter 1 is based on Barry Wellar’s James R. Anderson
Lecture in Applied Geography, sponsored by the Applied Geography Specialty
Group, and delivered in Denver at the 2005 Annual Meeting of the Association of
American Geographers. Wellar shares valuable perspectives on applied geographic
research gained during a career spanning over 40 years. He stresses that
synergy exists when combining curiosity-driven and client-driven research
methodologies. Wellar’s experience is that the best researchers are those that
“ask the question ‘Who cares’ about the value of a research finding, raise the
question in both domains, and use the answers to chart the path of future
research initiatives in both domains” (Wellar, 2010,
p. 4).
Westlund (Chapter 2) reviews the results of a
web-based survey of disaster management practitioners. The majority of those
surveyed use, or plan to use, geospatial technology, however, their level of
geospatial knowledge was found to be rather low (Westlund, 2010).
Those within the academic community possessing the requisite expertise and
facilities might be encouraged to engage the entrepreneurial university spirit
(Bailly,
Gibson, & Haynes, 2008) and offer specialized
geospatial training and workshops to mitigate known geospatial deficiencies
within particular user groups (disaster management, law enforcement, health
care). Let’s hope that the long-standing underutilization critique (Gould, 1992)
leveled against certain GIS user groups will eventually diminish.
Next, Richard Boehm and Audrey Mohan (Chapter
3) document the continuing vibrancy of geospatial jobs for students graduating
with geography degrees and concomitantly for faculty to fill positions
requiring expertise in geospatial technologies. With the infusion of the
geospatial technologies across an ever increasing range of applications (i.e.,
military, criminology, and health care services) Boehm and Mohan conclude that
geography departments deem GIS as proprietary and establish its primacy on
respective college campuses.
The chapters by Robert Hickey (Chapter 4) and
by David Webb and David Hoffpauir (Chapter 5) address issues pertaining to the
configuration of hardware and software options, and stress the important role
that layout design plays in facilitating the operation of their respective
geospatial facilities. These chapters share a common theme, yet their target
audiences are quite different. Hickey’s primary audience is students (although
faculty are not excluded) and a student-centered organization of the geospatial
classroom has enabled him to successfully “reach” this audience. By efficiently
organizing classroom furnishings and other accouterments he was able to create
spaces conducive to the creation of informal learning communities, thereby
stimulating the development of a center for geographical education (Hickey, 2010). Webb and Hoffpauir target
law enforcement professionals through the Incident Command Simulation Training
Program (InCoSiT) at Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas). InCosiTs
Incident Command Post (ICP) is equipped with state-of-the-art computer
hardware, software, and personnel that support the integration of geospatial
technologies into simulation training scenarios (i.e., hostage crisis,
terrorist attack, natural disaster). ICPs most impressive hardware item is a
super high-resolution digital imagining table (DIT) large enough (65 inch
diagonal screen) to overcome the “huddled group” effect by affording full
access to simultaneous viewers (Webb & Hoffpauir, 2010).
Expanding on the employment theme Wikle
(Chapter 6) analyzed online job ads for geospatial positions to gauge the
qualifications and job titles requested by employers. Using this information,
he suggests a model of GISci job titles and career ladders for the GISci
technician, analyst, and scientist paths (Wilke, 2010). Lawrence Estaville
(Chapter 7) reviews the current status and future prospects in the geospatial
workforce in the United States. Esatville foresees continued strong demand in
the geospatial workforce particularly for those positions requiring more
sophisticated modeling, design, and research capabilities (Estaville, 2010).
Finally, Mary Gordinier and Carol Hanchette (2010) provide an example of
applied geospatial research using ovarian cancer survival rates and access to
care in Kentucky (Chapter 8). Their chapter not only illustrates Wellar’s
challenge of combining curiosity-driven and client-driven research
methodologies, but the authors were also rewarded with “some surprising
results” (Hanchette, personal communications, December 15, 2008).
SECTION 2: FOCUS ON HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
SPECIALTIES IN APPLIED GEOSPATIAL RESEARCH
Topics
in Section 2 span across a wide spectrum of geographic specialties on economics
to crime (Table 2). The authors employed the geospatial
technologies to calculate a host of statistical and spatial analytic measures
including least cost path analysis, Thiessen polygons, gravity models,
autocorrelation statistics, landscape shape index, areal interpolation, and
more.
Table 2. Snapshots from Section 2
Author(s), (2010)
|
Geographic Specialty
|
Geospatial Technologies
|
Statistical & Spatial Analytic Measures
|
Klass
|
Economic Geography (Retail)
|
Geographic Information Systems
|
Gravity Models, Centroids, Thiessen Polygons
|
Hernandez & Svindal
|
Economic Geography
(Retail)
|
Cartography
|
Distribtion
|
Joseph
|
Economic Geography
(Retail)
|
Geographic Information Systems
|
Ordinary Least Square Regression, Moran’s I
|
Zhou
|
Economic Geography
(Banking)
|
Spatial Analysis Software
(Concentration)
|
E-Index, HHI
|
Song
|
Economic Geography
(Housing & Residential)
|
Geographic Information Systems
|
Getis-Ord’s Gi Statistics
|
Kim
|
Urban Geography
|
Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing
|
Shape Index
|
Jordan, Watkins, Biegon et al.
|
Population Geography
|
Geographic Information Systems
|
Spatial Estimation
|
Zhang, Anderson, Cowen & Mitchell
|
Public Policy
(School Choice)
|
Cartography
|
Descriptive Statistics, Multiple Regression
|
Rock, Mukkett, Algharib, Schaffer & Lee
|
Transportation Geography
|
Geographic Information Systems
|
Least Cost Path
|
Wilson & Mansfield
|
Medical Geography
|
Cartography/Geographic Information Systems
|
Areal Interpolation, Dasymetric Mapping
|
Gong
|
Geography of Crime
|
Remote Sensing
|
Data reclassification, Overlay Operation, Scatter Plot, Dot
Distribution, Choropleth Mapping, Stepwise Regression
|
Chapters 9-13 present a wide range of applications
encompassed within the realm of economic geography. Klaas (Chapter 9) compared
the gravitation fields and trade areas of existing retail business centers in
New Britain, Connecticut, with scenarios of one-half, one-fifth, and three
times strength assumptions. This type of analysis allows business managers to
visualize contingencies that alter the size, shape, and strength of competing
trade areas (Klaas, 2010). Hernandez and Svindal
(Chapter 10) examine the spatial distribution of major retail chains in urban
Canada from 2001 to 2011. Using descriptive statistics and cartographic
analysis the authors glean some emerging retail location strategies (Hernandez
& Svindal, 2010). Joseph (Chapter 11) employed
ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression and residual mapping to assess
locational characteristics and situational factors associated with the fast
food competitors McDonald’s and Burger King. The author’s discussion outlined
specific geographic differences between these two fast food chains (Joseph, 2010). Zhou (Chapter 12)
measured the concentration of retail banking services across the time span 1982
to 2007 for New York and Illinois. Zhou’s analysis allowed for definitive
statements about the changing distribution of bank deposits and bank branch
offices in this Tale of Two States (Zhou, 2010).
Chapter 13 explores whether or not the federal low-income housing program
(Section 8) has had an effect on the concentration of poverty in urban areas.
Using Jefferson County, Kentucky, Song and Keeling (2010)
employ a spatial autocorrelation statistic to delineate hot spots of Section 8
housing and juxtaposed the resulting clusters with Black population, median
household income, and median housing value.
Chapters 14 and 15, respectively, discuss
geospatial approaches to measuring spatial-temporal change of urban landscapes
(Kim,
2010) and spatial population estimation techniques (Jordan, et
al. 2010). These studies establish the value of remotely
sense data to examine issues in human geography. Chapter 14 demonstrates the
use of geospatial technologies to calculate landscape shape indices to measure
urban growth across three decades (1984, 1994, and 2004) in northeastern Ohio (Kim, 2010).
Jordan and colleagues’ (Chapter 15) review practical approaches to spatial
estimation of disaster-affected populations. The authors discuss the advantages
of using LandScan (population estimates) with Population Explorer (Internet
GIS) in order to answer queries about local population distribution and
composition (Jordan et al., 2010).
The next two chapters (16 and 17) deal with
using spatial analysis to assess public policy issues in South Carolina
(Chapter 16) and Ohio (Chapter 17), respectively. Zhang et al. (2010)
studies public-private school choice using descriptive statistics, multiple
regression, and cartographic analysis (juxtaposition of dot and choropleth
themes). Their findings have both theoretical and practical implications
pertaining to education policies in the United States. Rock et al. (Chapter 17)
employ a least cost path method to estimate costs of selecting a high-speed
rail route for Ohio’s 3-C Corridor (Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati). The
authors developed two scenarios incorporating slope and land cover and
weighting these with construction and acquisition costs. The least cost path
scenarios were juxtaposed with the Ohio Hub Project‘s (OHP) route for
comparison (Rock et al., 2010).
Chapters 18 and 19 both address the issue of
integrating statistics aggregated at incompatible zonation units. James Wilson
and Christopher Mansfield (Chapter 18) demonstrate a methodology which
transforms and merges health statistics from counties to respective
congressional districts (CD) and effectively links, at least geographically,
health and politics— topics that have been dominating the national scene since
2008. Their results provide legislators information at a geographic scale – the
CD – that facilitates comparisons between congressional districts (Wilson &
Mansfield, 2010). While Wilson and Mansfield focus on mortality
rates and interpolating county-level statistics to congressional districts,
Gong’s (Chapter 19) challenge is to interpolate crime statistics (burglaries)
from police beats to census tracts. Interpolating crime statistics from police
beats to census tracts provides the added value of linking with demographic and
socio-economic data available from the U.S. Census Bureau. Gong’s tackled this
problem by reclassifying remotely sensed data for Houston into seven land cover
types (high intensity developed, medium intensity, low intensity developed,
developed open space, agriculture, vegetation, and others) to account for
population density within land cover types (Gong, 2010). This is an improvement
over simpler interpolation approaches that assume a linear or uniform
population distribution across geographic units (i.e., census tracts).
The studies highlighted in Section 2 offer
intriguing and solid applications useful for problem solving and decision
support. The potential for other applications and geospatial solutions is
unlimited. The editor, therefore, expects subsequent volumes in this series to
follow.
Donald P. Albert
Sam Houston State University, USA
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Portions of this chapter were reprinted with the
expressed permission of IGI-Global from previously published editorial prefaces
appearing in the International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research (Albert,
2010a; 2010b, 2010c). Chapters 1-19 herein are reprinted by IGI Global from
volume 1(1-4) of the International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research with
signed consent from an author’s warranty and transfer of copyright agreement
with contributors. Dr. Jay Lee, executive director of the Applied Geography
Conferences, Inc., transferred copyright from the Papers of the Applied
Geography Conferences (AGC) to IGI Global for the following authors:
Hernandez and Svindal, Gang, Joseph, Song and Keeling, Rock et al., and Zhou.
The chapters originating from the AGC were revised, expanded significantly in
most instances, and sent out for a second round of peer-reviews before being
accepted for publication with the International Journal of Applied
Geospatial Research. I would like to acknowledge Jay Lee, Executive
Director of the Applied Geography Conferences, Inc., Nairne Cameron, Past Chair
of the Applied Geography Special Group, and 2003 Anderson Medal recipient Dr.
Barry Wellar for their assistance during 2010, notwithstanding the tremendous
support from countless others from the applied geography community. Several
individuals at Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas) including Dr.
Diane Dowdy, Associate Professor of English, Dr. John Strait, Associate
Professor of Geography, Dr. Jaimie Hebert, former Dean of the College of Arts
and Sciences and recently appointed Provost, Ann Holder, Director of Library
Services, and numerous other colleagues have been encouraging and helpful.
REFERENCES
Albert, D. (2010a). IJAGR one year out and scoping the future. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), i–iii.
Albert, D. (2010b). Towards synergetic union: Applied geography and geographic information science and technology. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), i–vi.
Albert, D., & Strait, J. (2010). Geographic information systems: Design, layout and operation considerations. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(3), i–iii.
Aronoff, S. (1989). Geographic information systems: A management perspective. Ottawa, Canada: WDL Publications.
Bailly, A., Gibson, L. J., & Haynes, K. E. (Eds.). (2008). Applied geography for the entrepreneurial university. Paris: Economica.
Boehm, R. G., & Mohan, A. (2010). Geospatial technology: Curricular keystone of applied geography. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), 6–39. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010071602
Cowen, D. J. (1990). GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: What are the differences? Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 54, 1551–1554.
DiBiase, D., DeMers, M., Johnson, A., Kemp, K., Luck, A. T., Plewe, B., & Wentz, E. (2006). Geographic information science and technology body of knowledge. Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers.
Estaville, L. E. (2010). Geospatial workforce trends in the United States. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), 57–66. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010071604
Gang, G. (2010). From beats to tracts: A remote sensing approach to the interpolation of crime data. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(2), 92–106. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010020906
Gibson, L. J. (2007). My education as an applied geography. Research in Geographic Education, 9(1), 29–35.
Gordinier, M. E., & Hanchette, C. L. (2010). Geographic disparities in cancer survival and access to care: Ovarian cancer in Kentucky. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), 67–79. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010071605
Gould, M. I. (1992). The use of GIS and CAC by health authorities: Results from a postal questionnaire. Area, 24(4), 391–401.
Hernandez, T., & Svindal, M. (2010). Emerging retail strategies in urban Canada. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(2), 19–36. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010020902
Hickey, R. (2010). Beyond class hours: The GIS lab as a center of geographic education. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(3), 1–16. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010070101
International City Management Association (ICMA). (1991). The local government guide to geographic information systems: Planning and implementation. Washington, DC: Public Technology Inc & International City Management Association.
International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research. (2009). Description, Mission & Coverage. IGI Publishing: Publication Details. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http://www.igi-global.com/IJAGR
Jordan, L., Watkins, B., Biegon, P., Mwangi, M., & Rose, R. (2010). Practical approaches to spatial estimation of disaster-affected populations. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(3), 31–48. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010070103
Joseph, L. (2010). Similarities between competitors and the implications for location strategies. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), 45–62. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010100104
Kim, H. J. (2010). Spatiotemporal pattern analysis of rapid urban expansion using GIS and remote sensing. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(2), 55–70. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010020904
Klaas, Z. (2010). Varying the variable: Presenting different cases for visualizing the relative attractiveness of retail business centers in New Britain, Connecticut. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), 16–31. doi:10.4018/jagr.2010100102
Maguire, D. J. (1991). An overview and definition of GIS. In D. J. Maguire, M. F. Goodchild, & D. W. Rhind (Eds.), Geographical information systems principles and applications (pp. 9–20). Essex, UK: Longman Scientific & Technical.
Montz, B. E., & Tobin, G. A. (2007). Three decades of applied geography: Themes from the Applied Geography Conferences since 1978. Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences, 30, 1–9.
Nature Publishing Group. (2004). Mapping opportunities. Nature, 427(22), 376–377. PubMed
Pacione, M. (1999). In pursuit of useful knowledge: The principles and practice of applied geography. In M. Pacione (Ed.), Applied geography: Principles and practice (pp. 3–18). London: Routledge.
Pacione, M. (2004). The principles and practice of applied geography. In A. Bailly & L. J. Gibson (Eds.), Applied geography: A world perspective (pp. 23–45). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Rock, A. E., Mullett, A., Algharib, S., Schaffer, J., & Lee, J. (2010). Impact of spatial filtering on the least cost path method: Selecting a high-speed rail route for Ohio’s 3-C Corridor. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), 32–44.
Song, W., & Keeling, K. (2010). Location patterns of Section 8 Housing in Jefferson County, Kentucky. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(2), 1–18.
Taylor, D. R. F. (1991). Geographic information systems: The microcomputer and modern cartography. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Torrieri, N. K., & Ratcliffe, M. R. (2003). Applied geography. In G. L. Gaile & C. J. Willmott (Eds.), Geography in America at the dawn of the 21st century (pp. 541–549). New York: Oxford University Press.
United States Department of Labor. Geospatial Information and Technology Association, & Association of American Geographers (U.S. DOLETA, GITA, & AAG). (n.d.). Defining and communicating geospatial industry workforce demand: Phase I report. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http://www.aag.org/giwis/ phase-one/phase-one-report.pdf
United States Department of Labor – Employment and Training Administration (U.S. DOLETA). (2009). High growth job training initiatives. United States Department of Labor: Employment & Training Administration. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from http://www.doleta.gov/ BRG/JobTrainInitiative/
Webb, D. W., & Hoffpauir, D. R. (2010). Critical incident management and geographically–based systems. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(3), 69–75.
Wellar, B. (2010). Significant advances in applied geography from combining curiosity-driven and client-driven research methodologies. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), 1–25.
Westlund, S. (2010). The use of geospatial technology in disaster management. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(3), 17–30.
Wikle, T. A. (2010). An examination of job titles used for GIScience professionals. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(1), 40–56.
Wilson, J. L., & Mansfield, C. J. (2010). Disease, death, and the body politic: An areal interpolation example for political epidemiology. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), 49–68.
Wilson, R., & Smith, K. (2008). What is applied geography for the study of crime and public safety? Geography and Public Safety, 1(1), 1–3.
Zhang, H., Anderson, L. W., Cowen, D. J., & Mitchell, L. S. (2010). A Geographic analysis of public-private School choice in South Carolina, USA. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(4), 1–15.
Zhou, B. IJAGR 1(2). (2010). Changing Retail banking supply-demand mismatch: A tale of two states. International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research, 1(2), 37–54.